Main periods of use on the site

Prehistoric

Paternoster Square is located at what is still one of the highest points in the City and as such was an ideal site for early settlement. Natural geology revealed on the digs consisted of truncated pre-Roman brickearth subsoil overlying brickearth and Thames river terrace gravels. The original land surface was fairly level across the entire area, with perhaps a slight slope downhill in the far eastern corner. No evidence was found of prehistoric features, although a rare ceramic loom weight dating to the mid-late Iron Age was found on the Newgate Triangle site (NGT00), indicating the presence of early occupation.

The western stream

Plan showing location and alignment of the stream as discovered at the SLY01 site

The topography and natural landscape of the area has been the subject of several studies, due to the presence of the enigmatic so-called 'western stream', a water channel thought to run along the western side of the site. The precise route and dates of this watercourse have not been finalised, but excavations to the south, north and north-west of Paternoster Square have come across deep deposits of waterlogged material and the dating evidence from these sites suggests that the stream had originally been a natural feature, running north-south across the landscape, which was subsequently cut wider in the early medieval period. Sections were dug through the stream and its fills on the Juxon House site (SLY00) at the south of Paternoster Square, where it was shown to be 22m wide in plan and 6-7m deep.

Linear 'transects' of auger holes were sunk across the width of the channel to study the deposits and analysis of the 'cores' has shown that water was initially fast flowing, suggesting a natural spring source for the channel, which later became silted up with vegetation growing on raised bars at the base of the channel. Radiocarbon dates show that this silting up occurred before 960 AD. The deliberate 'recutting' of the channel feature may have been linked to the development of early medieval St Paul's Cathedral: radiocarbon dates from peat samples taken at the base of the recut channel suggest they formed around 650 AD, similar to the date of foundation of the Cathedral in 604 AD. If so, it would be highly significant, as very little is known about this phase of the Cathedral's history. Pottery recovered from the upper backfills dates the final backfilling of the ditch to the 11th or 12th century.

Boreholes across the width of the channel reveal its depth and probable size

Possible alignment of the 'western stream' past St Pauls, extending from excavation at SLY00 (St Pauls Churchyard) to various observations at Wardrobe Court in the 1990s

Roman - 1st century

A reconstructed view showing Londinium as it might have been in the first century

The earliest evidence for occupation on the site was from the Newgate Triangle site (NGT00), alongside the main Roman road leading west from the city, itself one of the earliest planned features in Roman London. Parallel lines of stakeholes and linear slots were observed running east-west along the southern edge of this road, probably representing flimsy or temporary buildings. A roadside ditch ran parallel just to the south and was lined with stakeholes, possibly from a revetment or additional fenceline used as a land boundary. Another road joined the main east-west road at right angles to it, leading off to the south between a number of later 1st-century buildings. This road was clearly extensively used and maintained in the Roman period, with gravel 'metallings' surviving up to 1.20m deep! It may be an extension of a Roman road observed on the Juxon House site (SLY00), also running north-south and dated to the 1st century.

This stretch of the main east-west road was lined along its south edge with at least three phases of clay and timber buildings, constructed using timber posts, with wattle and clay walls and floors. Some walls were supported on brickearth sills and there was one example of a rotted timber sill. One building also had a collapsed painted plaster wall.

The early roadside ditch with lines of stakeholes

Excavating early Roman postholes

There was a layer of fire debris across the whole Newgate Triangle site dating from 60-61 AD when the Roman town was razed during the Boudican rebellion. The fire that resulted from the rebellion is thought to have destroyed most of the mid 1st-century city and the excavations on Paternoster Square confirmed the flames came as far west as modern Newgate Street. The destruction was complete; with broken pottery vessels visible within collapsed timber screen walls and the burnt wattle clearly visible.

Development of the road infrastructure in the 1st century at the Newgate Triangle site

Development of building plots by the early 2nd century at the Newgate Triangle site

Roman industry

Circular light ?industrial hearth

It was previously believed that the Paternoster area was an industrial zone for most of the early Roman period, though evidence from the recent excavations suggests that any industrial activity was on a relatively small scale and occurred within individual domestic properties. Several hearths were excavated either in rooms to the rear of buildings fronting on to Newgate Street or cut into external surfaces between buildings; these 'yards' were presumably covered with lightweight roofs. A small amount of potters' clay was excavated from one pit fill, but it was probably residual so no inferences can be drawn about local pottery production. Two circular kilns were found on the Newgate Street site (NGT00) in an open area between two domestic buildings, but they were nothing like the large-scale kilns (with massive quantities of broken pots!) found some way to the east at Northgate House along modern Moorgate. Different evidence for industrial activity came from the Paternoster Row site (PNS01), in the south-east of the development area. Here a 1st-century clay and timber building contained a circular hearth (see image) alongside which was an oval pit, interpreted provisionally as a working 'hollow', since it as lined with wood ash. Burnt timber beams lined three sides of this 'hollow' and were interpreted as the base for a temporary shelter or roof. There was a large circular pit adjacent to this building and this may have been a well providing water for an industrial function. More analysis work on the finds from these features may help to establish whether the area was the Roman equivalent of an industrial estate on the edge of the 1st-century city.

Roman - 2nd century and later

Excavating road metallings in the foreground; surface of buildings in the background

At some time during the 2nd century the expanding Roman city engulfed the Paternoster Square area, which was also taken in by the city wall erected at the end of the century. The early 2nd century is characterised across all the sites by further dense development of closely-packed domestic buildings. At Paternoster Row one building sealed a levelling deposit full of pottery dated to 120-130 AD.

Plan showing stretch of north-south road, with 2nd-century buildings to the west and east, with open areas beyond

To the south of this building was a narrow alley, on the other side of which lay the wall of a neighbouring building. Both the alley and the walls had been constructed over a single brickearth slab, which appears to indicate that they had all been built as part of a single planned construction phase and by the same property owner. Another 2nd-century building on Paternoster Row was apparently of slightly higher status, with one room at least having a mortar floor. This may be related to fragmentary masonry buildings with mosaic floors found very nearby during the rescue excavations of the 1960s and it suggests the presence of at least some wider-spaced high-status houses belonging to richer members of Roman London's society during the 2nd century. All these buildings were destroyed by fire in the mid 2nd century - possibly during the so-called Hadrianic Fire of 120-125 - which would mean the buildings were only in use for a very short period of time. A building after this fire had an elaborate tile built hearth with protective breastwork built against a partition wall of wattle and daub. This is very similar to hearths recorded on the 1975 site across Newgate Street to the north.

Roman internal floors surviving on both sides of the modern intrusion which cut through the middle

Archaeological evidence for activity in the 3rd and 4th centuries on the sites was mainly characterised by the digging of pits through earlier building levels. It is often assumed that the Roman city contracted, both in size and prosperity, during the later Roman period. There was certainly a general reduction in levels of activity and all four sites became open areas (?gardens, ?yards, ?derelict land) rather than zones of dense occupation. Bones found in deposits within these pits showed an increase in the incidence of scavenging animals: in particular the bones of ravens and black rats, suggesting a degree of abandonment or dereliction. Along the route of the road on Newgate Triangle at the north of the Paternoster Square area there were several large pits filled with pottery dated to the 3rd and 4th centuries, and no evidence of further building construction. Nevertheless, the roadside ditch was recut twice during this period and it can be assumed that both road and ditch were still in use. Certainly the cemeteries further west along the road were used throughout the later Roman centuries and the road would have remained a major thoroughfare leading west out of London over the Fleet river at modern Holborn.

The Paternoster Row site (PNS01) contained the most compelling evidence for later Roman buildings. This comprised several areas of 3rd-century tessellated floor, although unfortunately it was not possible to reconstruct building plans or indeed say whether there was only one very large building or several smaller ones. It might be assumed that the presence of a mosaic (or tessellated) floor suggested a building of some status, but the tesserae were of very differing sizes and other cheaper materials, such as chalk, were also used within the floor. A small area of collapsed wall plaster thought to be associated with one of the tessellated floors was of very poor quality. Perhaps the building(s) were not of as high a quality as might be imagined!

A burial laid on tiles; possibly late-Roman in date?

Plan showing late burials cutting though the Roman road

The Paternoster Row site (PNS01) also contained the most significant evidence for any later Roman activity, consisting of five human burials in graves cutting the surface of the Roman road. Two adults and three immature skeletons were found, all oriented west-east according to Christian practice, which appears to date them to the 4th or 5th centuries (or later). No obvious grave goods or dating evidence were found associated with the skeletons, although one of the graves contained a coin dated to 340-350 AD. One of the burials was placed on a bed of reused tiles dated to the 1st or 2nd century AD (see image), which may suggest that they were Roman in date. The graves were closely spaced but not intercutting, indicating that they occurred within a relatively short space of time, and possibly had grave markers to identify their location. Although it is unusual for burials to occur within the walls of a Roman town, there are parallels within London: for example at the amphitheatre with four burials cutting into the walls of the by then disused amphitheatre.

Medieval

Recording the lead pipe of the Great Conduit

Medieval activity on all four sites was unfortunately restricted to cut features as a result of later truncation. Mention has already been made of the possible channel associated with St Paul's Cathedral (see 'western stream'). Documentary sources mention a channel being backfilled in 1107 as part of the Cathedral's consolidation works on the west side of the precinct. There is obviously a wealth of material in the Cathedral archives that we will be studying in relation to the archaeological evidence. There were also several inhumation graves seen at the Juxon House site (SLY00), although they were all truncated by later medieval rubbish pits. Pottery from one of these graves was dated to the 11th century, indicating that at least this eastern part of the site was used as a cemetery during this period.

At the Paternoster Row site (PNS01) the presence of pits suggests that the area was open ground used primarily for rubbish disposal during the early medieval period, though a small chalk foundation was found which may have been part of one the buildings fronting on to medieval Paternoster Row. During the later medieval period the Paternoster area was known for the sale of religious artefacts and memorabilia: local street names such as Amen Corner, Ave Maria Lane and Paternoster itself (from the prayers of medieval monks singing the 'Our Father' or pater noster) commemorate the influence of the Cathedral on the area. After the Reformation and the rise of Protestantism, trade in religious iconography collapsed and the publishing of religious tracts became the prime industry in the area. Paternoster Row was to become famous for its publishing houses right up until the Second World War.

Medieval features at the Paternoster Row site

The most significant medieval find from the site was part of the so-called Great Conduit, a lead water pipe installed during the medieval period to provide water for the inhabitants of the area, observed running along the southern edge of the Paternoster Row site.

Post-Medieval

Plan showing post-medieval features at the Newgate Triangle site

The post-medieval development of the area centres around the Great Fire of London and the subsequent rebuilding of St Paul's Cathedral and the surrounding streets. The pre-Fire street pattern had remained very much the same throughout the medieval period, although by the 17th century the northern part of the Paternoster area was very densely built up and had become known for its inns and taverns, perhaps surprisingly given the close proximity of the Cathedral! The Great Fire of London in 1666 destroyed all the buildings in the area. Although Sir Christopher Wren was able to rebuild St Paul's in a new Classical style, the surrounding streets were reconstructed from existing foundations and medieval property plots. A new market was established on the northern part of the Paternoster area, becoming famous for 'white' meat (poultry and veal), while the east end of Newgate Street became known during this period as Blowbladder Street after the produce available there!

Old map showing areas of destruction in the west of the City after the Great Fire

A historic painting of Newgate market

A representation of the butchers market at Paternoster

An archaeologist recording a brick cellar

The most compelling post-medieval archaeology came from the Newgate Street site (NGT00), where several brick built cellars were excavated (see image of cellar being recorded) that had presumably belonged to buildings fronting Newgate Street. One of these cellars contained a collection of very high status porcelain, representing the most fashionable and expensive ceramics available during the third quarter of the 18th century, and as such may indicate the status of the inhabitants of the buildings above the cellar. It also contained a large assemblage of the remains of high quality cuts of meat, many glass wine bottles and several items of cutlery. All these finds support the view that it may have been below a tavern or hostelry. One of the brick-lined cess pits excavated in the same area also contained a unique find: a phallus-shaped drinking cup!